EXPECTANCY, GOAL SETTING AND RE-ENFORCEMENT THEORIESExpectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory is the theory that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectationthat the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.Three relationships are important to this theory.1. Effort-performance linkage (expectancy) is the probability perceived by the individual that exertinga given amount of effort will lead to a certain level of performance.2. Performance-reward linkage (instrumentality) is the degree to which an individual believes thatperforming at a particular level is instrumental in, or will lead to, the attainment of a desiredoutcome.3. Attractiveness of the reward (valence) is the importance that the individual places on the potentialoutcome or reward that can be achieved on the job.4. There are four features inherent in the theory.a. What perceived outcomes does the job offer the employee?b. How attractive do employees consider these outcomes to be?c. What kind of behavior must the employee exhibit to achieve these outcomes?d. How does the employee view his or her chance of doing what is asked?5. The key to understanding this theory is to understand an individual’s goal and the linkage betweeneffort and performance, between performance and rewards, and between rewards and individualgoal satisfaction.Goal-Setting TheoryThis theory says that specific goals increase performance, and difficult goals, when accepted, result in higherperformance than easy goals. What do we know about goals as motivators?A Intention to work toward a goal is a major source of job motivation. Specific and challenging goalsare superior motivating forces. Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than dogeneralized goals.B Is there a contradiction between achievement motivation and goal setting? No, and here’s why.A. Goal-setting theory deals with people in general; achievement theory is based only on peoplewho have a high need for achievement. Difficult goals are still recommended for the majorityof employees.B. The conclusions of goal-setting theory apply to those who accept and are committed to thegoals. Difficult goals will lead to higher performance only if they are accepted.C Will employees try harder if they participate in the setting of goals?